In addition, when there is an excess

of 25(OH)D, 24-OHase in the kidneys can convert it to 24,25(OH)2D14 to prevent over-production of 1α,25(OH)2D. Of note, originally it was believed that 1α-OHase and 24-OHase exist exclusively in the kidneys, however, the two enzymes have been demonstrated in many extra-renal tissues.15–17 Given that anephric individuals had no detectable 1α,25(OH)2D in their circulation, it is believed that 1α,25(OH)2D generated in the extra-renal tissues acts and degrades only locally in an autocrine/paracrine fashion. This autocrine pathway seems to be regulated in a tissue-specific manner, which is not associated with systemic calcium homeostasis. Once 25(OH)D is internalized into the cells, the fate of 25(OH)D may depend on the relative expression levels of 24-OHase to 1α-OHase. In the cells with dominant expression of 1α-OHase, 25(OH)D will be converted Nutlin-3 mw to 1α,25(OH)2D to exert its non-calcemic functions. At the same time, the locally generated 1α,25(OH)2D will

upregulate the expression of 24-OHase within the cells to hydroxylate 1α,25(OH)2D and excess 25(OH)D to form 24-hydroxylated metabolites leading to their catabolism. On the other hand, in cells dominated with the expression of 24-OHase, the generated 1α,25(OH)2D will be degraded very quickly with little or no biological actions. The genomic action of 1α,25(OH)2D is mediated through its binding to vitamin D receptor (VDR) to modulate the expression of genes in a cell- and tissue-specific manner18 MCE公司 (Fig. 2). VDR is an endocrine member of the nuclear receptor superfamily.19 So far, there are 2776 VDR binding sites being identified selleckchem by a chip-sequencing method located within

229 vitamin-D-regulated genes.20 Since the initial identification of VDR in tissues not associated with the regulation of calcium and bone metabolism by Stumpf et al.21 in 1979, many non-calcemic actions of vitamin D have been described. At the present time, the 1α,25(OH)2D-induced antiproliferation, anti-inflammatory response, pro-differentiation, pro-apoptosis and immune regulation are well established and found to be tissue- and cell-specific.17,22 For example, at least 23 human cancer cell lines have been found to express VDR23–26 and 1α,25(OH)2D has been shown to exhibit growth inhibitory effect on those cells, including prostate, breast, lung, liver, and pancreatic cancer cells. Similar to other members of the nuclear receptor family, the liganded VDR requires further dimerization with retinoid X receptor (RXR) to form a heterodimer to bind to vitamin D response element (VDRE)27 located in the promoter region of vitamin D responsive genes to exert its genomic functions, including the inhibition of cancer cell growth and the prevention of cells from malignant transformation. The VDR-mediated gene expression is further modulated by a multiple of co-factors.