Similarly, the combination of a single dose of PGE2 (10 nM) TGFbeta inhibitor with several doses of PTH (0.1 nM to 10 nM) decreased Alp mRNA expression relative to PGE2 or PTH alone ( Fig. 6C). To examine a role for BMMs in the inhibition of OB differentiation by the combination of PTH and PGE2, we examined the effects of OPG ( Fig. 6D). In the presence of OPG, the combination of PTH and PGE2 had additive stimulatory

effects on Osteocalcin mRNA. Other PGs could be involved in the inhibitory effect of COX-2. To screen for some other likely candidates, we treated Cox-2 KO BMSCs with PGE2 and compared with other PG receptor agonists, all at 0.1 μM ( Fig. 6E). Because PGI2 is unstable, we used MRE-269, a stable IP receptor agonist. For PGF2α, we used dinoprost, an FP receptor agonist. All cultures were with Cox-2 KO cells because PGs can induce COX-2 expression and make PGE2, which could confound the comparison [41]. PGE2 was the only prostanoid that stimulated Osteocalcin

mRNA, and the only prostanoid that resulted in loss of the stimulatory effect when added to PTH. These data on exogenous PGE2, along with the previous data on endogenous PGs, can be summarized as follows (Table 2). The inhibition of PTH-stimulated OB differentiation was only seen in the presence of both BMMs and endogenous or exogenous PGs. In the absence of BMMs, there was no inhibitory effect of COX-2 or PGE2, and PTH and PGE2 were additive. In the presence of BMMs, treatment with ABT-199 chemical structure the combination of PTH and PGE2, each of which was stimulatory alone, produced no stimulatory effect. The need for BMMs to be present in order to see inhibition of PTH effects suggests that PGs are acting on BMMs to cause the inhibition. As indicated by the studies above, PGE2 is a likely candidate for the PG involved. The effects of PGE2 in bone have been most often associated with cAMP production and protein kinase A (PKA) activation, suggesting an important role for the PGE2 receptors EP2 and EP4, which are both coupled to Gαs. Both EP2 and EP4 are reported to be expressed by bone marrow macrophage OC Methamphetamine precursors [42]. To examine the roles of these

receptors, BMSCs from WT and Ptger2 or Ptger4 KO mice were cultured with PTH ( Figs. 7A,B). PTH stimulated OB differentiation in Ptger4 KO cultures but inhibited in WT and Ptger2 KO cultures. For comparison, we treated these cultures with PGE2. PGE2 stimulated Osteocalcin expression in both WT and Ptger2 KO BMSC ( Figs. 7A,B). As expected from previous experiments, which showed a major role for EP4 in the osteogenic effects of PGE2 [43] and [44], deletion of Ptger4 greatly reduced PGE2-mediated OB differentiation. To determine if EP4 on BMMs was necessary for the suppression of PTH effects, we co-cultured Cox-2 KO POBs with BMMs from WT, Cox-2 KO and Ptger4 KO mice ( Fig. 7C). As expected, PTH stimulated Osteocalcin expression in POBs cultured without BMMs and in POBs co-cultured with Cox-2 KO BMMs but not with WT BMMs.