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Luo H, Ke PC: Uptake, translocation, and transmission of carbon nanomaterials in rice plants. Ruboxistaurin Small 2009, 5:1128–1132. 180. Torre-Roche RDL, Hawthorne J, Deng Y, Xing B, Cai W, Newman LA, Wang Q, Ma X, Hamdi H, White JC: Multiwalled carbon nanotubes and C 60 fullerenes differentially impact the accumulation of weathered pesticides in four agricultural plants. Environ Sci Technol 2013, 47:12539–12547. 181. Kole C, Kole P, Randunu KM, Choudhary P, Podila R, Ke PC, Rao AM, Marcus RK: Nanobiotechnology can boost crop production and quality: first evidence from increased plant biomass, fruit yield and phytomedicine content in bitter melon ( Momordica charantia ). BMC Biotechno 2013, 13:37. 182. Husen A, Siddiqi KS: Carbon and fullerene nanomaterials

in plant system. J Nanobiotechno 2014, 12:16. 183. Miralles P, Johnson E, Church TL, Harris AT: Multiwalled carbon nanotubes in alfalfa and wheat, toxicology and selleck kinase inhibitor uptake. J R Soc Inter 2012, 77:3514–3527. 184. Khodakovskaya MV, de Silva K, Nedosekin D, Dervishi E, Biris AS, Shashkov EV, Galanzha EI, Zharov VP: Complex genetic, photothermal, and photoacoustic analysis of nano particle plant interactions. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2011, 108:1028–1033. 185. Khodakovskaya MV, de Silva K, Biris AS, Dervishi E, Villagarcia H: Carbon nanotubes induce growth enhancement of tobacco cells. ACS Nano 2012, 6:2128–2135. 186. Chen R, Ratnikova TA, Stone MB, Lin S, Lard M, Huang G, Hudson JS, Ke PC: Differential uptake of carbon nanoparticles by plant and mammalian cells. Small 2010, 6:612–617. 187. Tajbakhsh M: Relationships between electrical conductivity of imbibed seeds leachate and subsequent seedling growth (viabiliy and vigour) in omid wheat. J Agric Set Technol 2000, 2:67–71. 188. Oberdörster E: Manufactured nanomaterials

(fullerenes, C 60 ) induce oxidative stress in the brain of juvenile large mouth bass. Environ Health Perspect 2004, 112:1058–1062. 189. Levi N, Hantgan RR, Lively MO, Carroll DL, Prasad GL: C 60 -fullerenes, detection of intracellular photoluminescence Exoribonuclease and lack of cytotoxic effects. J Nanobiotechn 2006, 4:14. 190. Zhu S, Oberdorster E, Haasch ML: Toxicity of an engineered nanoparticle (fullerene, C 60 ) in two aquatic species, Daphnia and fathead minnow. Mar Environ Res 2006, 62:S5-S9. 191. Jacobsen NR, Pojana G, White P, Møller P, Cohn CA, Korsholm KS, Vogel U, Marcomini A, Loft S, Wallin H: Genotoxicity, cytotoxicity, and reactive oxygen species induced by single-walled carbon nanotubes and C 60 fullerenes in the FE1-Muta™ mouse lung epithelial cells. Environ Mol Mutagen 2008, 49:476–487. 192.

coli isolate (URO734, index strain) was detected from the urine of a 61-year-old male inpatient (patient 1) of the rehabilitation unit of the

San Martino-IST www.selleckchem.com/products/incb28060.html Hospital on 30 June 2012 (Figure 1). At the beginning of June, the patient was hospitalized for 7 days, in a hospital in New Delhi, India, with a history of right middle cerebral artery ischemic stroke and left-sided hemiparesis. On 15 June 2012 the patient was admitted to San Martino-IST stroke center and on click here 26 June he was transferred in the rehabilitation unit for 57 days. Subsequent urine samples, collected during the hospitalization period (9 July, 12 July, 27 July), continued to yield NDM-4-positive E. coli showing the same MDR phenotype as URO734 until 27 July. The patient was empirically treated with colistin. C646 datasheet Subsequent urine samples (03 August, 09 August) were negative for E. coli. Figure 1 Time of isolation of NDM-4 positive E.coli from patient 1 and 2. A second case of urinary tract infection sustained by NDM-4-positive E. coli was detected in July 2012 in another inpatient (patient 2), a 79-year-old

man, with a history of hip replacement, who was admitted to the same rehabilitation unit during a period overlapping the admittance of the index case. The first isolate from patient 2 (isolate URO735) was contemporary with the second isolate from patient 1. Subsequent urine sample, collected during the admission period Adenosine triphosphate (17 July), continued to yield NDM-4-positive E. coli, showing the same MDR phenotype as URO734. Initially, the patient was empirically treated with pipemidic acid and then, after antimicrobial susceptibility results were available, with nitrofurantoin. The clinical condition

of the patient improved and the patient was discharged, without further positive urine culture. No history of travel in India or other NDM endemic areas was reported for this patient. Antimicrobial susceptibility The NDM-4-positive E. coli isolates exhibited a MDR phenotype to aminoglycosides, fluoroquinolones, and all β-lactams tested. The strains were susceptible to colistin, nitrofurantoin, fosfomycin and tigecycline (Table 1). All NDM-4-positive isolates produced metallo-β-lactamase (MBL) activity by the imipenem-EDTA double-disk synergy test. Table 1 Minimum Inhibitory Concentrations of selected antimicrobials agents against NDM-4-producing E.

These findings indicate the existence of alternative RGD-independent pathways for FMDV entry into cell. In the present study we report that two viruses harboring alternative receptor binding sites (RDD

or RSD) were generated after short-term passage of an FMDV field isolate (Asia1/JS/CHA/05) in different environments. The non-RGD receptor recognition motifs were stably maintained during subsequent passage in cell culture. To study the ability of an RDD-containing FMD viral genome to accommodate substitution in receptor see more binding site and non-RGD viruses to cause disease in susceptible animals, we assembled an RDD-containing FMDV (Asia1/JSp1c8) full-length cDNA clone and derived mutant clones harboring RGD or RSD motif with a single amino acid substitution (RDD→RGD, RDD→RSD) in the receptor binding site. Following transfection of BSR/T7 cell with three full-length plasmids, the resulting viruses were examined for PU-H71 concentration their infectious potential in-vitro and in-vivo. Results https://www.selleckchem.com/products/VX-680(MK-0457).html sequence analysis of Asia1/JS/CHA/05 and its derivatives Deduced amino acid

sequence analysis of the 1D-encoding region showed that Asia1/JS/CHA/05 had a consensus RGD triplet at position 143-145 of VP1, while Asia1/JSp1c8 obtained an alternative RDD triplet at this position. However, careful inspection of the electropherograms from the Asia1/JSM4 VP1 gene sequencing reactions revealed the presence of two genetic subpopulations, one with RGD and the other with RSD at receptor binding site. To further investigate the genetic heterogeneity within these samples, 10 biological clones containing VP1 genes of each Asia1/JS/CHA/05, Asia1/JSp1c8 and Asia1/JSM4 were sequenced. check The 10 clones obtained from each of the Asia1/JS/CHA/05 and Asia1/JSp1c8 viruses respectively encode RGD and RDD tripeptide at position 143-145 of VP1. For Asia1/JSM4, four clones encoded RSD and six clones maintain the RGD motif

at the same position. These results were identical to the amino acid sequence analysis performed by direct sequencing of PCR amplicons. Additionally, amino acid sequence analysis of the capsid-coding regions of Asia1/JS/CHA/05, Asia1/JSp1c8, and Asia1/JSM4 showed that Asia1/JSp1c8 had seven amino acid substitutions in the capsid region (1 in 1A, 3 in 1B, 1 in 1C and 3 in 1D; Table 1) compared with Asia1/JS/CHA/05 and Asia1/JSM4. Table 1 Comparison of the P1 amino acid sequence of Asia1/JS/CHA/05, Asia1/JS/p1c8, and Asia1/JSM4 Capsid region Amino acid residue position a Asia1/JS/CHA/05 Asia1/JSM4 Asia1/JS/p1c8 1A 73 S S N 1B 107 I I V   132 E E K   134 D D G 1C 133 T T A 1D 144 G G/S D   154 N N S   202 K K E a Amino acid residues are numbered from the amino terminus to the carboxyl terminus. Single letter amino acid code is used.

A recent investigation found that condensed tannins could exhibit a reduction in methane production in an in vitro gas production test [21]. Further investigation into the diversity of 16S rRNA gene library of rumen methanogen in the condensed tannin

treatment library revealed 21.9% 4SC-202 chemical structure higher diversity of sequences related to the TALC methanogens and a lower diversity of those associated with orders Methanobacteriales (15.1%) and Methanomicrobiales (6.8%) [22]. This shows a possible association between reduction in methane production and diversity of rumen methanogen. In the current study, yak has present higher methanogen diversity and significant different methanogen community structures compared with cattle (Figure 1). While there are many factors which may explain these differences in methanogen diversity, it is possible that these differences between the methanogen see more diversity in yak and cattle could be related to the significant difference in enteric methane production by both these ruminant species. Long [23] reported a significantly high level of propionic acid, which leads to efficient energy utilization and this further suggested a low methane production

in yak. Yak has also been found GANT61 in vivo to exhibit lower methane output [9]. In the present study, yak had higher levels of acetate, proprionate, isobutyric, isovaleric and total volatile fatty acids than cattle, but cattle had higher acetate to proprionate (A/P) ratios (Table 2). This may also suggest different methanogenesis pathways. Therefore, the diversity and community structure of methanogens

in yak, which is the lower methane producing ruminant species in current study, correlates with data reported by Tan et al [22]. Table 2 The concentrations of volatile fatty acids from yak and cattle Tacrolimus (FK506) rumen samples Volatile fatty acids Yak (mmol/L) Cattle (mmol/L) Standard error Significance Acetate 58.56 42.57 3.18 p < 0.004 Propionate 12.13 7.35 0.93 p < 0.001 Isobutyric 0.88 0.60 0.06 p < 0.016 Butyrate 9.03 7.25 0.49 p < 0.09 Isovaleric 1.02 0.51 0.12 p < 0.027 Valeric 0.07 0.13 0.06 p < 0.728 Total volatile fatty acids 81.69 58.41 4.61 p < 0.001 A/P (Acetate to Propionate) 4.83 5.80 0.19 p < 0.004 * Concentrations of volatile fatty acids was analysed by gas chromatograph equipped with a DB-FFAP column (30 m × 0.25 μm × 0.25 μm; Agilent Technologies). Wright et al [24] revealed 65 sequences of methanogens by phylogenetic analysis from the Australian sheep rumen, and 62 of them belonged to the genus Methanobrevibacter. They were grouped with Methanobrevibacter NT7, Methanobrevibacter SM9, Methanobrevibacter M6, Methanobrevibacter ruminantium, Methanobrevibacter acididurans and Methanobrevibacter thaueri.

Expression of pan-cytokeratin was LCZ696 ic50 detected on 100% of the cells assayed (data not shown). PICs were then seeded into 24-well tissue culture plates and assays for adhesion, invasion and intracellular survival of C. jejuni were performed as described

for the INT-407 infection studies. Scanning electron microscopy To further investigate the interaction between the RPs mutants and the INT-407 cells and PIC, infected monolayers were analyzed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) as described previously [31] with minor modifications. Briefly, different cell types were grown on HCl treated glass coverslips. The C. jejuni strains were added to the monolayers at an MOI of 200. After 3 h of incubation, the cells were gently washed with 1X PBS and fixed (3% glutaraldehyde, 2% paraformaldehyde in 0.1 M potassium phosphate buffer, pH 7.2) at 4°C overnight. selleck The samples were then rinsed in 0.1 M potassium phosphate

(3 times with 15 min incubation for each step) and post-fixed with 1% osmium tetroxide for 1 h at room temperature in the dark. This was followed with serial dehydration of the samples in ethanol, critical point drying and platinum eFT508 molecular weight sputter-coating (Molecular and Cellular Imaging Center, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center [OARDC]; http://​www.​oardc.​ohio-state.​edu/​mcic). The samples were visualized and imaged using the Hitachi S-4700 Org 27569 scanning electron microscope. All samples were tested in duplicate and non-infected monolayers were used as controls to assess morphological changes associated with the bacterial infection. Statistics Data were expressed as mean ± SE (standard error) and statistical analysis was performed using the student’s t-test. A P value of <0.05 was considered statistically significant. Unless otherwise indicated in the text, the reported statistics highlight comparisons between each mutant strain and the wildtype. Acknowledgements We thank Tea Meulia, Andrea Kaszas, Leona Horst, and the Molecular

and Cellular Imaging Center (MCIC) for assistance with SEM. Research in the Rajashekara laboratory is supported by funds from the USDA, the Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center (OARDC), and the Ohio State University. Electronic supplementary material Additional file 1: Table S1. Analysis using the complementation strains shows that the phenotypes were rescued to levels that were comparable to those associated with the wildtype. Not applicable (NA) indicates the instances where the mutant did not show a divergent phenotype, hence the complementation strain was not tested. Data were reported as means and * indicates statistical significance (P < 0.05). The complementation of the fdhA reverted the deficiency in biofilm formation associated with the ΔfdhA to levels that were higher than those of the wildtype. (DOCX 15 KB) Additional file 2: Table S2.

Statistically discernible distribution of virulence-markers along the up-to-down-gradient landscape was observed (Table 3). In addition, the active gelatinase phenotype was observed in 19.05% E. faecalis isolates [see Additional file 2]. The background level of virulence-markers in the up-to-down gradient landscape exist at least for two virulence-markers predominantly gelE + esp + (26.19%) followed by gelE + efaA + (7.14%). The only exception was site 3 with median value of one which otherwise exhibited the range of SB202190 in vivo one to four virulence-markers gelE + efaA +, gelE + efaA + esp +,gelE + ace + efaA + and gelE + ace + efaA + esp

+. The impact of landscape and associated environmental factors seem to affect the dissemination of all four virulence-markers at site 3 which receives contamination from hospital wastes, municipal sewage and tannery

effluents. Enterococci isolates from the most polluted downstream site exhibited a range of two to three virulence-markers per isolate; gelE + esp + and gelE + efaA + esp + Selleckchem MEK inhibitor combinations were the most prevalent multiple-virulence-traits. Significantly, the correlation of four virulence-markers was identified either singly or in combination with Enterococcus spp. diversity from river Ganga surface waters (Table 4). Earlier reports on dissemination of virulence-markers in ICG-001 different enterococci suggest virulence-markers are common trait in the genus Enterococcus[7, 32–34]. A recent study has reported the prevalence of gelatinase phenotype of enterococci Non-specific serine/threonine protein kinase in agricultural environment and suggested it as reservoir of clinically relevant strains [35]. The pervasiveness of virulence-markers investigated in the current study may be due to the evolution of pathogenic enterococci by natural conjugation in environmental waters that receive potential pathogenic enterococci from various point and non-point sources including urban land use, agriculture, intensive livestock operations, hospital and industrial wastes. The natural processes are too complex to comprehend although the transconjugation experiments

conducted elsewhere demonstrated in vitro transfer of additional virulence determinants from clinical strains to starter strains [7]. In the present study, the phenotypic assay for gelatinase activity revealed that certain E. faecalis and different Enterococcus spp. isolates contained apparently silent gelE determinant. This observation is supported by an earlier report on presence of silent gelE gene possibly due to inactive gene product or down regulation of gene expression influenced by various environmental factors resulting in lack of phenotypic activity [7]. Further, the activation of silent genes by temporal factors existing in our body, the response of other commensal microbes in the gastrointestinal tract and the persistent presence of large numbers of preexisting commensal enterococci cannot be ignored.

*P < 0.05 and # P < 0.01 vs CS; ★ P < 0.05 and ※< 0.01 vs SE; △ P < 0.01 vs ES. Exhaustive exercise induces the generation of free radicals which may cause an increase in lipid peroxidation [21]. Measuring MDA is one of the most widely used approaches for evaluating oxidative damage to lipids. Figure 3b illustrates that the plasmic MDA levels of SE or ES-LBP rats significantly decreased compared with that of ES rats (P<0.05 and P< 0.01 respectively). This result indicates that LBPs can attenuate lipid peroxidation. NO is an important vasodiator factor produced by vascular endothelial cells. We found that there was a significant increase in the SE

group. As expected, the NO level was significantly reduced by exhaustive exercise. Further, SB273005 clinical trial we found this reduction induced by exhaustive exercise could be reversed by LBPs treatment (Figure 3c). The expression of heat shock proteins (HSPs) is induced by hyperthermia BKM120 concentration ischemia, oxidative cytokine, muscular stress, glucose deprivation, alterations in calcium and pH [22]. HSP70 is a group of binding proteins with molecular weight of 70 KD, which is significantly increased by high-intensity exercise [23]. To determine the expression of HSP70 after exercise and supplement with LBPs, the plasmic level of HSP70, analyzed by ELISA, showed

an selleck immediate increase after both exercise sessions. As shown in Figure 3d, the HSP70 levels of SE or ES rats were increased. Furthermore, LBPs treatment induced a much higher increase in the ES group (P< 0.01). Expression of eNOS mRNA As the NO level can be up-regulated by LBPs, we therefore examined the effect of LBPs on the expression of eNOS in the aorta after exhaustive exercise. The expression of eNOS mRNA in aorta of four groups was shown Glutamate dehydrogenase in Figure 4. There were significant differences in the eNOS mRNA expression level among different groups. The eNOS expression was increased in both SE and ES-LBP groups (P < 0.01). However, the level of eNOS expression was significantly attenuated in rats after exhaustive exercise (P < 0.01). LBPs treatment significantly

reversed the inhibition of the eNOS expression in rats from ES group (p < 0.01). Figure 4 Effects of LBPs on eNOS mRNA expression in thoracic aorta separated from rats in different groups. Values are expressed as mean ± SD (n = 10). # P<0.01 vs CS; △ P<0.01 vs ES. Discussion The effects of LBPs on vascular vasoreactivity in exhaustive exercise rats were investigated. The major finding of this study was that the contraction induced by NA in thoracic aorta was increased in the presence of exhaustive exercise. Furthermore, supplementation with the LBPs for 4 weeks remarkably improved the vascular reactivity of ES-LBP rats compared to the ES rats (Figure 1). As the arterial compliance is judged by the responsiveness to NA, the results showed that the compliance or distensibility of aorta was increased in LBPs treated animals [24].

It was assumed that the distance between the particle surface and loading plate during the compression, h gap, was constant due to the repulsive energy potential [22]. The total load P applied onto the sphere was evaluated from the stress response within selleck chemicals the plate (because of the load balance between the plate and particle) using (3) where

A p is the area of the plate normal to the z-axis (Figure  4b) and σ Pz is the component of the virial stress along the z-axis. The usual definition of the virial stress [24] can be simplified for the case of the stress along the z-axis in the plate as (4) where V P denotes the volume of the plate, m is mass of carbon atom i, v iz the z-component of velocity of atom i, r ijz the z-component AMN-107 of the displacement vector between the ith carbon and jth CG bead, f ijz is the z-component of the force between them, N bead is the total number of CG beads, and N carbon is the total number of carbon atoms in the plate. Because the carbon atoms in the plate were frozen, the velocity terms in Equation (4) were zero-valued. Substitution of Equation (4) into (3) yields (5) In order to effectively evaluate the size effect in the polymer particles, a continuum model of a particle subjected to compressive loading between two flat plates was evaluated with finite element analysis (FEA). Because the size effect observed in polymer nanoparticles does not exist in the classical continuum modeling of materials, the

response of the FEA model is independent of size effects and thus serves as an excellent control reference to Selleck C646 compare the molecular modeling results with. Axisymmetric quadrilateral elements were used with the ANSYS finite element software package [25]. Contact elements were placed between the surfaces of the sphere and the rigid plate. The Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio values determined oxyclozanide from the bulk MD simulations of PE described in ‘Spherical particle molecular models’ section were used in the FEA model. Displacements were applied to the top surface of the model, and the nominal strains and nominal stresses were measured using Equations (1) and (2), respectively. It is important to note

that elastic properties were used to simulate a large deformation of the material. Normally, a hyperelastic analysis would be appropriate for such an analysis; however, the linear approximation is sufficient for the current study as a simple baseline comparison to the MD models. The nominal stress-strain curves obtained for the MD and FEA simulations are shown in Figure  6a. It is clear that the mechanical responses of the different particles subjected to compressive loading are similar for nominal strains <0.2 and diverge for nominal strains >0.2. Furthermore, it is evident that the smaller the diameter of the nanoparticle, the greater the nominal stress for a given nominal strain >0.2. The lowest stress response belongs to the continuum model, which has no inherent size effect.

The majority of the proteins detectable by Coomassie blue staining were not affected by trypsin treatment, indicating that cytoplasmic proteins were not exposed to proteolysis. Globomycin inhibited PhoA processing When pTAP transformant cells were grown with increasing concentrations of globomycin, cell growth was inhibited. A concentration of 25 μg globomycin/ml was the highest

to still allow growth of cells. Growth in 25 μg globomycin/ml resulted in an increase in the molecular weight of PhoA (Figure 3A, lane 25 μg/ml) compared to that seen in cells grown in the absence of globomycin (Figure 3A, lane 0 μg/ml). Figure 3 Lipoprotein processing of PhoA. A. Effect of globomycin on the processing of PhoA. Mycoplasma transformants were grown in broth without or with globomycin added, as indicated above each lane, and their GSK2245840 solubility dmso proteins separated on 10 % SDS-polyacrylamide gels, Western transferred and immunoselleck products stained using a MAb to AP. In cells grown in globomycin (25 μg/ml), and thus in which signal peptidase II

was inhibited, a higher molecular weight band was seen, indicative of the presence of the prolipoprotein. In the absence of globomycin (0 μg/ml) the fully processed 47 kDa lipoprotein is seen. B. Radiolabelling of PhoA. M. gallisepticum cell proteins and pTAP transformed M. gallisepticum cells were radiolabelled Selleckchem Y27632 with [14 C]palmitate and separated on 10 % SDS-polyacrylamide gels. The polyacrylamide gels were stained with Coomassie brilliant blue and autoradiographed or

Western transferred and immunostained using a MAb to AP. Lanes 1, M. gallisepticum cells; 2, pTAP transformed cells. Panels CB, Coomassie brilliant blue stained; WB, Western transferred and immunostained; RL, radiolabelled and autoradiographed. The dark arrow indicates the 67 kDa VlhA protein and the open arrow indicates the 47 kDa protein. Radiolabelling of lipid modified proteins Lipoproteins of M. gallisepticum transformed with pTAP were radiolabelled with [14 C]palmitate, separated by SDS-PAGE gel and either stained with Coomassie brilliant blue (Figure 3B, CB) and autoradiographed (Figure 3B, RL) or Western transferred and immunostained (Figure 3B, WB). Following autoradiography, a band of 47 kDa, similar to the expected size of alkaline phosphatase, was detected in the pTAP transformed cells (Figure Ceramide glucosyltransferase 3B, RL, 2), suggesting that PhoA in pTAP transformed M. gallisepticum was a lipoprotein. A Western blot immunostained with a MAb to AP demonstrated the presence of a recombinant AP protein of similar size to that of the radiolabelled band in pTAP-transformed M. gallisepticum (Figure 3B, WB, 2). Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and mass spectrometric analysis of PhoA proteins Following separation of Triton X-114 preparations of protein by 2-D gel electrophoresis, a spot corresponding to PhoA was excised, digested with trypsin and analysed by mass spectrometry.

At the same time, it is clear that coral growth, biogenic sediment production, and wave action can serve to maintain stability and even contribute to island growth, this being the way in which reef islands were formed in the first place. Thus it is clear that development and adaptation strategies (e.g., ecosystem-based adaptation) designed to complement natural

resilience in the coastal system should have a higher probability Selleckchem Sotrastaurin of success. This approach presupposes an understanding of the relevant coastal sedimentary and ecological processes of interest, which highlights the importance of biophysical science as one component of the information package needed for effective coastal management, climate-change adaptation, and disaster risk reduction. In a broader governance context, it is recognized that understanding of key processes forms an essential foundation for sustainable development (Glaser et al. 2012). Effective disaster risk reduction also requires knowledge of

potential threats. In some cases, for rare and exceptional events such as major tsunami or extreme storms, there may be some residual community memory, but often there is not. Effective stakeholder collaboration and attention to local and traditional knowledge are important and may identify issues that would otherwise be overlooked. There is a large and growing literature on the value of indigenous knowledge and protocols STAT inhibitor for integrating locally sourced information with other forms of knowledge including western scientific approaches (e.g., Crump and Kelman 2009; Kelman and West 2009; McAdoo et al. 2009; Mercer et al. 2009). The explosive growth of social media, even in remote communities, opens up new possibilities for information exchange and participatory dialogue. New tools are being developed to invite and enable contributions of information from the wider public (e.g., Tienaah 2011;

Nichols et al. 2011). This study has highlighted the variability of island environments and the diversity of dominant processes, hazards, and exposure on various island types. As shown schematically in Fig. 12, differences in the modes of exposure and dominant hazard issues between island types can be correlated to variations in why the relative importance and utility of adaptation actions. Thus, an ecosystem-based adaptation tool such as mangrove conservation or restoration is applicable to continental and volcanic high islands and locally on atolls, but irrelevant on raised carbonate atolls. Coastal setback is a globally recognized proactive adaptation option applicable to all island types, but perhaps most compelling on high carbonate islands such as Bermuda or Niue, where major tropical cyclone waves can demolish cliff-top facilities. Fig. 12 HER2 inhibitor Schematic template showing variable severity of major coastal hazards as a function of island type and a selection of adaptation strategies with varying applicability across types.